Disk formatting is the process of preparing a hard disk or other storage medium for use
including setting up an empty file system. A variety of utilities and programs exist for this task; pictured to the right is the iconic FORMAT.COM of MS-DOS and PC-DOS.
Large disks can be partitioned, that is, divided into distinct sections that are formatted with their own file systems. This is normally only done on hard disks because of the small sizes of other disk types, as well as compatibility issues.
A corrupted operating system can be reverted to a clean state by formatting the disk and reinstalling the OS, as a drastic way of combating a software problem or malware infection. Obviously, important files should be backed up beforehand.
Contents
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1 Two levels of formatting
1.1 Low-level formatting of floppy disks
1.2 Low-level formatting (LLF) of hard disks
1.2.1 Transition away from LLF
1.2.2 Disk Reinitialization
1.3 High-level formatting
2 Formatting in DOS, OS/2 and Windows
3 Recovery of data from a formatted disk
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Two levels of formatting
Formatting a disk involves two quite different processes known as low-level and high-level formatting. The former deals with the formatting of disk surfaces and installing characteristics like sector numbers that are visible to, and used by, the disk controller hardware, while the latter deals with specific information written by the operating system.
Low-level formatting of floppy disks
The low-level format of floppy disks (and early hard disks) is performed by the disk drive hardware.
The process is most easily described with a standard 1.44 MB floppy disk in mind. Low-level formatting of the floppy normally writes 18 sectors of 512 bytes each on each of 160 tracks (80 on each side) of the floppy disk, providing 1,474,560 bytes of storage on the disk.
Sectors are actually physically larger than 512 bytes as they include sector numbers, CRC bytes and synchronization fields, which indicate the correct speed at which to read data off at the disk. These additional bytes are not included in the quoted figure for overall storage capacity of the disk.
To complicate matters, different low-level formats can be used on the same media; for example, large records can be used to cut down on inter-record gap size.
Several freeware, shareware and free software programs (e.g. GParted, FDFORMAT, NFORMAT and 2M) allowed considerably more control over formatting, allowing the formatting of high-density 3½" disks with a capacity up to 2 MB.
Techniques used include:
head/track sector skew (moving the sector numbering forward at side change and track stepping to reduce mechanical delay),
interleaving sectors (to minimize sector gap and thereby allowing the number of sectors per track to be increased),
increasing the number of sectors per track (while a normal 1.44 MB format uses 18 sectors per track, it's possible to increase this to a maximum of 21), and
increasing the number of tracks (most drives could tolerate extension to 82 tracks – though some could handle more, others could jam).
Linux supports a variety of sector sizes, and DOS and Windows support a large-record-size DMF-formatted floppy format.[citation needed]
Low-level formatting (LLF) of hard disks
Low-level format of a 10-megabyte IBM PC XT hard drive.
User instigated low-level formatting (LLF) of hard disks was common in the 1980s. Typically this involved setting up the MFM pattern on the disk, so that sectors of bytes could be successfully written to it. With the advent of RLL encoding, low-level formatting grew increasingly uncommon, and most modern hard disks are embedded systems, which are low-level formatted at the factory with the physical geometry dimensions and thus not subject to user intervention.
Early hard disks were quite similar to floppies, but low-level formatting was generally done by the BIOS rather than by the operating system. This process involved using the MS-DOS debug program to transfer control to a routine hidden at different addresses in different BIOSs[citation needed].
Early hard disks often had imprecise head-movement mechanisms based on stepper motor technology, which located tracks by advancing the stepper a specific number of steps, and the correct track should appear under the head. But a drive formatted horizontally often would not function in a vertical orientation, due to the force of gravity pulling down on the mechanism and moving the heads slightly out of alignment with tracks written in the horizontal position. It was usually necessary to LLF a drive for the orientation it was meant to be used.
Early hard drives also tended to use a magnetic storage material with a low resistance to demagnetization (coercivity). An MFM/RLL drive containing data that was rarely written would eventually develop data errors all by itself due to the opposing magnetic domains that define data bits softening and neutralizing each other. Although data would become unreadable, this was not due to a media defect. The low-level format process can wipe out these mushy sectors and firm up new boundaries in the mud, allowing the drive to perform again as if it were brand new for a while longer. Some older drive utilities such as Spinrite included a sector refreshing function that read and rewrote all sectors to firm up the sector magnetic domains.
Transition away from LLF
Starting in the early 1990s, low-level formatting of hard drives became more complex as technology improved with:
the switch from FM to MFM to RLL encoding,
the introduction of zone bit recording, which stores more sectors on the longer outer tracks compared to the shorter innermost tracks. This improves storage density and allows faster transfer rates on the outermost tracks.
the switch from track numbers encoded on a separate "servo platter", to encode track numbers into the same disk surface as the data, to simplify hardware, and
increased mechanical speeds of the drive.
Rather than face ever-escalating difficulties with BIOS versioning, disk vendors started doing low-level formatting at the factory. Today, an end-user, in most cases, should never perform a low-level formatting of an IDE or ATA hard drive, and in fact it is often not possible to do so on modern hard drives outside of the factory.[1][2]
The primary reason low-level formatting cannot be done is because modern drives do not use stepper motors to locate tracks, and hence there is no way to determine where tracks should be recreated on the media. Instead in modern drives the heads are positioned using a stepless analog servomotor, often referred to as the voice coil since it operates almost exactly like an analog audio speaker.
Modern drives locate tracks based on special servo control data permanently written to the drive platters at the factory by the hard drive manufacturer, using highly specialized equipment. Early servo-controlled drives used an entire separate disk platter to store this read-only servo data,[3] but this was inefficient. Modern drives store the servo data directly embedded among the regular tracks and sectors, and operate in a manner such that servo data is absolutely never overwritten for any reason. Loss of servo data results in a loss of the ability to locate the data tracks.
Servo data is also why modern drives can operate in any position compared to early MFM and RLL drives. The head positioning is based on data embedded directly within the media itself so the drive always knows exactly where the heads should be positioned, and the servo can immediately compensate for any jarring motion that would otherwise misalign MFM drives and get the stepper out of sync with the tracks, requiring a seek to track zero to resynchronize the stepper.
Disk Reinitialization
While it's impossible to perform an LLF on most modern hard drives (since the mid-1990s) outside the factory, the term "low-level format" is still being used (erroneously) for what should be called the reinitialization of a hard drive to its factory configuration (and even these terms may be misunderstood). Reinitialization should include identifying (and sparing out if possible) any sectors which cannot be written to and read back from the drive, correctly. The term has, however, been used by some to refer to only a portion of that process, in which every sector of the drive is written to; usually by writing a zero byte to every addressable location on the disk; sometimes called zero-filling.
The present ambiguity in the term "low-level format" seems to be due to both inconsistent documentation on web sites and the belief by many users that any process below a "high-level (file system) format" must be called a low-level format. Instead of correcting this mistaken idea (by clearly stating such a process cannot be performed on specific drives), various drive manufacturers have actually described reinitialization software as LLF utilities on their web sites. Since users generally have no way to determine the difference between a true LLF and reinitialization (they simply observe running the software results in a hard disk that must be partitioned and "high-level formatted"), both the misinformed user and mixed signals from various drive manufacturers have perpetuated this error. Note: Whatever possible misuse of such terms may exist (search hard drive manufacturers' web sites for all these terms), many sites do make such reinitialization utilities available (possibly as bootable floppy diskette or CD image files), to both overwrite every byte and check for damaged sectors on the hard disk.
One popular method for performing only the "zero-fill" operation on a hard disk is by writing zero-bytes to the drive using the Unix dd utility (available under Linux as well) with the "/dev/zero" stream as the input file (if=) and the drive itself (either the whole disk, or a specific partition) as the output file (of=).
High-level formatting
High-level formatting is the process of setting up an empty file system on the disk, and installing a boot sector. This alone takes little time, and is sometimes referred to as a "quick format".
In addition, the entire disk may optionally be scanned for defects, which takes considerably longer, up to several hours on larger hard disks.
In the case of floppy disks, both high- and low-level formatting are customarily done in one pass by the software. In recent years, most floppies have shipped pre-formatted from the factory as DOS FAT12 floppies. It is possible to format them again to other formats, if necessary.
Formatting in DOS, OS/2 and Windows
Under MS-DOS, PC-DOS, OS/2 and Microsoft Windows, disk formatting can be performed by the format command. The format program usually asks for confirmation beforehand to prevent accidental removal of data, but some versions of DOS have an undocumented /AUTOTEST option; if used, the usual confirmation is skipped and the format begins right away. The WM/FormatC macro virus uses this command to format the C: drive as soon as a document is opened.
There is also the undocumented /U parameter that performs an unconditional format which overwrites the entire partition,[4] preventing the recovery of data through software (but see below).
Recovery of data from a formatted disk
As with regular deletion, data on a disk is not fully destroyed during a high-level format. Instead, the area on the disk containing the data is merely marked as available (in whatever file system structure the format uses), and retains the old data until it's overwritten. If the reformatting is done with a different file system than previously existed in the partition, some data may be overwritten that wouldn't be if the same file system had been used. However, under some file systems (e.g., NTFS; but not FAT), the file indexes (such as $MFTs under NTFS, "inodes" under ext2/3, etc.) may not be written to the same exact locations. And if the partition size is increased, even FAT file systems will overwrite more data at the beginning of that new partition.
From the perspective of preventing the recovery of sensitive data through recovery tools, the data must either be completely overwritten (every sector) with random data before the format, or the format program itself must perform this overwriting; as the DOS FORMAT command did with floppy diskettes, filling every data sector with the byte value F6 in hex.
Minggu, 29 Maret 2009
Disk Formating
Bersih - bersih ??
Oh.. saya orang paling malas kalau sudah berbicara masalah bersih - bersih apalagi kalau bersih - bersih kamar :-).
Tapi kali ini saya tidak akan bersih - bersih kamar, melainkan bersih - bersih isi hardisk dari temporary files yang tidak berguna seperti system temporary, Cache dan Cookies, Recycle Bin, dan masih banyak lagi.
Bukan kerjaan mudah jika kita harus membersihkan file - file tersebut satu persatu. Biasanya saya menggunakan disk cleaner untuk melakukannya. Dengan disk cleaner maka proses bersih - bersih ini dapat dilakukan dengan mudah.
Silahkan download disk cleaner disini. Selain Gratis, ukuran filenya juga kecil kok :-)
Satu hal yang saya suka dari disk cleaner adalah simple. Tekan Clean, maka komputer anda akan bersih dari semua jenis temporary files. Ada yang sudah mencobanya ??
Disk Defragmenter
Disk Defragmenter is a computer program included in Microsoft Windows designed to increase access speed by rearranging files stored on a disk to occupy contiguous storage locations.
a technique commonly known as defragmenting. The purpose is to optimize the time it takes to read and write files to/from the disk by minimizing head travel time and maximizing the transfer rate. As of Windows XP, Disk Defragmenter is also used to improve system startup times.
Contents
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1 History
1.1 Windows 9x
1.2 Windows 2000
1.3 Windows XP and Windows Server 2003
1.4 Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008
2 Limitations
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
History
MS-DOS versions up to version 5 did not include any defragmentation capabilities. When Defrag, licensed from Symantec, was shipped for free with MS-DOS 6.0, the use of the alternative commercial products became less frequent, because customers were unable to justify the additional expense.
Initial releases of Windows NT also did not include a defragmentation tool, nor did Windows NT 3.51 or prior releases include any built-in application programming interface for moving clusters. Executive Software (later renamed to Diskeeper Corporation) released a defragmentation tool for Windows NT 3.51 that shipped with a customized version of the NT kernel and file system drivers that provided this functionality. When Windows NT 4.0 was being developed, Microsoft incorporated this functionality into the kernel as file system control (FSCTL) commands for both NTFS and FAT32 partitions.[1] No graphical or command-line interface was provided, however.
Windows 9x
A Disk Defragmenter also shipped as part of Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows Me. It could be scheduled using a Maintenance Wizard and supported command line switches. [2] It had a limitation that if the contents of the drive changed while defragmenting, it restarted the process from the beginning. [3]
Windows 2000
Windows 2000 includes a stripped-down licensed version of Diskeeper Corporation's (formerly Executive Software's) Diskeeper. The techniques used by the Disk Defragmenter are as follows: [1]
1.Moving all the index or directory information to one spot. Moving this spot into the center of the data, i.e. one third of the way in, so that average head travel to data is halved compared to having directory information at the front.
2.Moving infrequently used files further from the directory area.
3.Obeying a user provided table of file descriptions to emphasize or ignore.
4.Making files contiguous so that they can be read without unnecessary seeking.
Windows XP and Windows Server 2003
Windows Disk Defragmenter was updated to alleviate some restrictions.[4]:728 It no longer relies on the Windows NT Cache Manager, which prevented the defragmenter from moving pieces of a file that cross a 256KB boundary within the file. NTFS metadata files can also be defragmented. A command-line tool, defrag.exe, has been included,[5] providing access to the defragmenter from cmd.exe and Task Scheduler.
Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008
In Windows Vista, Disk Defragmenter includes an option to automatically run at scheduled times using Task Scheduler and uses low CPU priority and the newly introduced low priority I/O algorithm so that it can continue to defrag using reduced resources (less CPU and disk read/write activity) when the computer is in use. The user interface has been simplified, with the color graph and progress indicator being removed entirely. It was also not possible to select which drives to defragment, though Windows Vista Service Pack 1 adds this feature.
If the fragments of a file are over 64 MB in size, the file is not defragmented if using the GUI; Microsoft has stated that this is because there is no discernible performance benefit since the time seeking such large chunks of data is negligible compared to the time required to read them.[6] The result, however, is that Disk Defragmenter does not require a certain amount of free space in order to successfully defrag a volume, unlike performing a full defragmentation which requires at least 15% of free space on the volume. The command line utility, Defrag.exe, offers more control over the defragmentation process, such as performing a full defragmentation by consolidating all file fragments regardless of size.[7] This utility can be used to defragment specific volumes or to just analyze volumes as the defragmenter would in Windows XP.
Disk Defragmenter is maintained by Microsoft's Core File Services (CFS) team. The Windows Vista version has been updated to include the improvements made in Windows Server 2008 in Windows Vista SP1. The most notable of these improvements is that the ability to select which volumes are to be defragged has been added back. [8]
Limitations
In Windows 2000 and later operating systems, Disk Defragmenter has the following limitations:
It does not defragment files residing in the Recycle Bin or files that are in use. [9] In particular, this includes the page file and hibernation file.
Only one volume can be analyzed or defragmented at a time and only one instance can run. [10]
Only local volumes can be defragmented, network volumes are not supported. [10]
The GUI version prior to Windows Vista cannot be scheduled, however the command line utility since Windows XP and later can be scheduled.
Unlike previous versions, the GUI version in Windows Vista does not display a map of disk fragmentation, nor does it display progress during defragmentation.
In addition, the Windows 2000 version has the following limitations which were removed in Windows XP: [10]
Defragmenting NTFS volumes with cluster sizes larger than 4 kilobytes (KB) is not possible.
It is not possible to perform fine-grained movement of uncompressed NTFS file data in Windows 2000. Moving a single file cluster also moves the 4 KB part of the file that contains the cluster.
EFS encrypted files are not defragmented.
NTFS metadata, such as the Master File Table (MFT), or metadata that describes a directory's contents is not defragmented.
See also
Defragmentation
File system fragmentation
List of defragmentation software
References
1.^ a b Russinovich, Mark (20 March, 2007). "Inside Windows NT Disk Defragmenting". TechNet. Microsoft. http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/sysinternals/bb897427.aspx. Retrieved on 2008-12-09.
2.^ Windows 95 Defrag.exe Command-Line Parameters
3.^ Description of the Disk Defragmenter Tool in Windows 98/Me
4.^ Russinovich, Mark; David Solomon (2005). "Memory Management". Microsoft Windows Internals (4th edition ed.). Microsoft Press. ISBN 0-7356-1917-4.
5.^ "Description of the new command line Defrag.exe included with Windows XP (MSKB283080)". Microsoft. http://support.microsoft.com/kb/283080/en-us. Retrieved on 2008-12-09.
6.^ Disk Defragmenter FAQs
7.^ "Disk Defragmenter". User Guide. Windows Vista User Guide. 27 January, 2007. http://www.windowsvistauserguide.com/disk_defragmenter.htm. Retrieved on 2007-01-27.
8.^ Disk Defragmenter in Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008
9.^ Disk Fragmentation and System Performance
10.^ a b c Disk Defragmenter Limitations in Windows 2000, Windows XP, and Windows Server 2003
External links
Troubleshooting Disk Defragmenter
[hide]
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cara meng-crimping kabel UTP
Teknik paling murah dan cukup memuaskan adalah menggunakan kabel UTP. UTP kabel merupakan singkatan Unshielded Twisted Pair
Yaiu kabel yang terdiri dari 4 pasang (biru, oranye, hijau, dan coklat) kabel yang dipilin menurut aturan tertentu dan digunakan untuk mentransfer/menerima data.
Kabel ini terdiri dari beberapa jenis 1. UTP cat 5, teknologi 100Base-T, frekuensi 16 MHz. Bandwidth data mencapai 100 Mbps (teoritis)
2. UTP cat 5e, teknologi 1000Base-T, frekuensi 100 MHz. Bandwidth data mencapai 1.000 Mbps (teoritis)
3. UTP cat 6, teknologi 1000Base-T, frekuensi 250 MHz. Bandwidth data mencapai 2.500 Mbps (teoritis)
rimp tool / Crimping tool adalah alat untuk memasang kabel UTP ke konektor RJ-45 / RJ-11 tergantung kebutuhan. Bentuknya macam-macam ada yang besar dengan fungsi yang banyak, seperti bisa memotong kabel, mengupas dan lain sebagainya. Ada juga yang hanya diperuntukan untuk crimp RJ-45 atau RJ-11 saja.
Kabel Tester
Supaya anda yakin bahwa pemasangan kabel ke konektor sudah ok lebih baik kalau anda juga memiliki cable tester seperti berikut ini. Perbedaan diatara dua testerdibawah ini adalah yang satu memakai satu led untuk satu pair sementara yang satu lagi satu led untuk satu kabel. Untuk pemula lebih mudah untuk mempergunakan yang type satu led per kabel karena anda tidak akan dibuat pusing D . Kemudian tester yang lebih kecil adalah remote cable tester yang dipakai apabila kabel yang di test panjang dan kedua ujung nya tidak berdekatan (misalnya ada diruangan yang berbeda). Cara penggunaannya adalah dengan memasang ujung kabel yang satu ke TX di cable tester yang besar kemudian set auto, kemudian di ujung yang lain kita pasang remote cable tester. Setelah itu anda cukup melihat remote cable tester saja. Apabila menyala berarti kabel terkoneksi dengan baik sementara apabila mati berarti kabel terputus.
ada aturan khusus mengenai pengurutan kabel, biasanya menggunakan standar EIA/TIA 568 (baik A maupun B)
1. jika koneksi ujung kabel yang satu dengan ujung kabel yang lain sama (terserah, A-A atau B-B) maka kabel disebut straight)
2. jika koneksi ujung kabel yang satu dengan ujung kabel yang lain beda (terserah, A-B atau B-A) maka kabel disebut cross)
standar 568 A memiliki kode warna kabel : 1. putih hijau
2. hijau
3. putih oranye
4. biru
5. putih biru
6. oranye
7. putih coklat
8. coklat
(kabel diurut dari sebelah kiri, gagang pengait konektor ada dibawah)
standar 568 B memiliki kode warna kabel :
1. putih oranye
2. oranye
3. putih hijau
4. biru
5. putih biru
6. hijau
7. putih coklat
8. coklat
Tips untuk memasang Kabel ke Konektor
1. Siapkan semua peralatan terutama kabel, konektor RJ-45 dan Crimping tool.
2. Kupas bagian luar kabel (pembungkus kabel-kabel kecil) kira-kira sepanjang 1 cm dengan menggunakan pengupas kabel yang biasanya ada pada crimp tool (bagian seperti dua buah silet saling berhadapan itu untuk mengupas)
3. Susun kabel sesuai dengan keperluan. Untuk konektor pertama selalu susun dengan susunan standar untuk Stright atau T568A. Apabila anda merasa kurang nyaman dengan susunan kabel coba tarik sedikit semua kabel yang telah dikupas sementara tangan yang satu lagi memegang bagian kabel yang tidak terkupas. Kemudian susun kembali dengan cara memelintir dan membuka lilitan pasangan kabel.
4. Rapihkan susunan kabel dengan cara menekan bagian yang dekat dengan pembungkus kabel supaya susunan kabel terlihat rata.
5. Potong ujung-ujung kabel yang tidak rata dengan pemotong kabel (bagian yang hanya memiliki satu buah pisau dan satu bagian lagi datar pada crimp tool adalah pemotong kabel) sampai rapih. Usahakan jarak antara pembungkus kabel sampai ujung kabel tidak lebih dari 1cm.
6. Dengan tetap menekan perbatasan antara kabel yang terbungkus dan kabel yang tidak terbungkus, coba masukan kabel ke konektor RJ-45 sampai ujung-ujung kabel terlihat dibagian depan konektor RJ-45. Kalau masih belum coba terus ditekan sambil dipastikan posisi kabel tidak berubah.
7. Setelah anda yakin posisi kabel tidak berubah dan kabel sudah masuk dengan baik ke konektor RJ-45 selanjutnya masukan konektor RJ-45 tersebut ke crimpt tool untuk di pres. Ketika konektor dalam kondisi didalam crimp tool anda bisa memastikan kembali kabel sudah sepenuhnya menyentuh bagian dapet RJ-45 dengan cara mendorong kabel kedalam RJ-45. Pastikan juga bahwa bagian pembungkus kabel sebagian masuk kedalam konektor RJ-45.
8. Kemudian anda bisa menekan crimp tool sekuat tenaga supaya semua pin RJ-45 masuk dan menembus pelindung kabel UTP yang kecil. Apabila anda kurang kuat menekan kemungkinan kabel UTP tidak tersobek oleh pin RJ-45 sehingga kabel tersebut tidak konek. Dan apabila pembungkus bagian luar tidak masuk kedalam konektor RJ-45, apabila kabel tersebut sering digerak-gerakan, kemungkinan besar posisi kabel akan bergesar dan bahkan copot.
9. Lakukan langkah-langkah diatas untuk ujung kabel yang satu nya lagi.
10. Apabila anda yakin sudah memasang kabel UTP ke RJ-45 dengan kuat selanjutnya adalah test dengan menggunakan LAN tester apabila ada. Apabila anda tidak memiliki LAN tester jangan takut anda cukup melihat kembali kabel yang sudah terpasang, memastikan bahwa anda sudah cukup kuat memasang nya dan semua ujung kabel terlihat dari bagian depan RJ-45 maka hampir bisa dipastikan pemasangan kabel UTP tersebut sukses.
11. Silahkan di coba dan good luck )
LAN HUB
Kabel UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) atau biasa di juluki (A.K.A) kabel LAN dengan menggunakan standar CAT 5 yaitu kabel dengan kemampuan transfer sampai 100 Mbps, konon kabarnya hanya bisa bekerja pada jarak maksimum 100 Meter walau saya sendiri belum pernah nyoba pasang sampe segitu panjangnya, paling panjang saya pasang sekitar 25 Meter, itu aja udah di bilang sama Master Master kenalan saya kalo datanya loss atau packet loss. Who knows? :-??
Adapun dibagi dua jenis:
1. Crossed-Over berfungsi menghubungkan perangkat yang sama, misal PC dengan PC atau SWITCH/HUB dengan SWITCH/HUB. Walau SWITCH atau HUB keluaran sekarang yang beredar sudah banyak yang menggunakan teknologi auto negotiation, maksudnya itu SWITCH/HUB kalo dipasang kabel jenis cross atau straight sama aja bisa dipake (ga ngaruh)
Crossed-Over
2. Straight-Through berfungsi menghubungkan perangkat yang berbeda, misal PC dengan HUB.
Straight-Through
Jadi warna kabel yang dipake saya kira cuma warna yang ada di pin 1 , 2 , 3 , 6 dan selain kabel di pin itu saya kira ngga dipake. Pengalaman LAN card teman saya dengan merek D-LINK, konektornya cuma disediakan untuk 4 pin, yaitu 1, 2, 3 dan 6. Who knows? :-??
